I. Introduction
This report presents an overview of noise and its effects on people. Special emphasis is placed on developments over the past decade, both in terms of noise conditions and noise effects research. By doing so, this report should illustrate some of the reasons for concern about noise problems, which persist after the closing of EPA’s Office of Noise Abatement and Control (ONAC).
Noise has a significant impact on the quality of life, and in that sense, it is a health problem in accordance with the World Health Organization’s (WHO) definition of health. WHO’s definition of health includes total physical and mental well-being, as well as the absence of disease. Along these lines, a 1971 WHO working group stated: “Noise must be recognized as a major threat to human well-being.” (Suess, 1973)
The effects of noise are seldom catastrophic, and are often only transitory, but adverse effects can be cumulative with prolonged or repeated exposure. Although it often causes discomfort and sometimes pain, noise does not cause ears to bleed and noise-induced hearing loss usually takes years to develop. Noise-induced hearing loss can indeed impair the quality of life, through a reduction in the ability to hear important sounds and to communicate with family and friends. Some of the other effects of noise, such as sleep disruption, the masking of speech and television, and the inability to enjoy one’s property or leisure time also impair the quality of life. In addition, noise can interfere with the teaching and learning process, disrupt the performance of certain tasks, and increase the incidence of antisocial behavior. There is also some evidence that it can adversely affect general health and well-being in the same manner as chronic stress. These effects will be discussed in more detail in the paragraphs below.
II. ONAC’S Activities in Noise Effects Research and Criteria
In response to the mandates of Section 5 of the Noise Control Act of 1972, ONAC published Public Health and welfare Criteria for Noise (EPA, 1973a) and Information on Levels of Environmental Noise Requisite to Protect Public Health and welfare with an Adequate Margin of Safety (EPA, 1974a), popularly known as the “Levels Document” for obvious reasons). Also in 1973,ONAC sponsored an international conference in Yugoslavia on the effects of noise, from which voluminous proceedings there published (EPA, 1973b). All of these documents there widely distributed and, although somewhat dated, are still read and referenced today. Because a considerable amount of research in this area has been conducted over the past 2 decades, these documents would benefit from revision.
In these documents ONAC established dose-response relationships for noise and its effects, and identified safe levels of noise to prevent hearing loss and activity interference. The agency also established the day-night average noise level as a universal descriptor to be used in assessing the impact of community noise.
Section 14 of the Act directs ONAC to conduct or finance research on noise effects, including investigations of the psychological and physiological effects of noise on humans and the effects of noise on animals. Approximately 35 technical reports resulted from these efforts, as well as contractor reports and numerous articles in scientific journals.
Some of the more noteworthy examples of EPA’s research program there:
Although much useful information was derived from these programs, some of them there irreparably damaged by the abrupt termination of funding from ONAC that occurred in 1981 and 1982. For one example, the Johns Hopkins study of cardiovascular effects of noise on primates was terminated after testing on only one subject had been completed. For another, the longitudinal data from the Fels Institute is now of little value after a hiatus of more than a decade.
III. Physical Properties and Measurement of Sound
A. Physical Properties
Noise is often defined as unwanted sound. To gain a satisfactory understanding of the effects of noise, it would be useful to look briefly at the physical properties of sound.
Sound is the result of pressure changes in a medium (usually air), caused by vibration or turbulence. The amplitude of these pressure changes is stated in terms of sound level, and the rapidity with which these changes occur is the sound’s frequency. Sound level is measured in decibels (abbreviated dB), and sound frequency is stated in terms of cycles per second, or nowadays, Hertz (abbreviated Hz). Sound level in decibels is a logarithmic rather than a linear measure of the change in pressure with respect to a reference pressure level. A small increase in decibels can represent a large increase in sound energy. Technically, an increase of 3 dB represents a doubling of sound energy, and an increase of 10 dB represents a tenfold increase. The ear, however, perceives a 10-dB increase as doubling of loudness.
Another important aspect is the duration of the sound, and the way it is distributed in time. Continuous sounds have little or no variation in time, varying sounds have differing maximum levels over a period of time, intermittent sounds are interspersed with quiet periods, and impulsive sounds are characterized by relatively high sound levels and very short durations.
The effects of noise are determined mainly by the duration and level of the noise, but they are also influenced by the frequency. Long-lasting, high-level sounds are the most damaging to hearing and generally the most annoying. High-frequency sounds tend to be more hazardous to hearing and more annoying than low-frequency sounds. The way sounds are distributed in time is also important, in that intermittent sounds appear to be somewhat less damaging to hearing than continuous sounds because of the ear’s ability to regenerate during the intervening quiet periods. However, intermittent and impulsive sounds tend to be more annoying because of their unpredictability.
B. Instrumentation
The instrument for measuring noise is the basic sound level meter or a number of its derivatives, including noise dose meters (usually called dosimeters), integrating sound level meters, graphic level recorders, and community noise analyzers. Improvements in all of these instruments have taken place during the last decade. This is especially true of the computerized dosimeters and integrating meters, which can measure, compute, store, and display comprehensive data on the noise field (Earshen, 1986). These instruments are now able to measure over very wide dynamic ranges and to measure impulsive sounds with a high degree of accuracy.
C. Measurement and Descriptors
Most sound level meters and dosimeters use built-in frequency filters or “weighting networks ” in the measurement process. By far the most frequently used filter is the A weighting network, which discriminates against low-frequency and very high-frequency sounds. A weighting approximates the equal-loudness response of the ear at moderate sound levels, and correlates well with both hearing damage and annoyance from noise. A weighting will be assumed throughout this report unless otherwise specified.
Composite measures of noise, such as the equivalent continuous sound level (Leq) and the day-night average sound level (DNL) incorporate A weighting, (The mathematical notation for DNL is Ldn.) these levels constitute sound energy averages over given periods of time, the DNL incorporates a 10-dB nighttime penalty from 10:00 pm to 7:00 am, meaning that events occurring during that time are counted as 10 dB higher than they really are. A variant of the DNL that is used in California (and Europe) is the community noise equivalent level (CNEL), which incorporates a 5-dB penalty for evening noise events, as well as the 10-dB nighttime penalty (California Code of Regulations, 1990).
For more than a decade, both the DNL and the simple Leq have been used extensively for assessing the impact of aircraft/airport noise. Recently, however, communities have expressed dissatisfaction with these metrics when used to regulate noise (Wesler, 1990). Metrics that employ averaging fail to describe the disturbance arising from single events, especially low-flying aircraft, unexpected or newly occurring flights, or flights occurring in areas where solitude is at a premium. The sound exposure level (SEL), an event’s sound level normalized to one second, is gaining popularity as a supplement to the DNL and the Leq for characterizing single events.
IV. Noise in America
A. Population Trends
The U.S. population has increased an average of 25 million with each census since 1950. According to the World Almanac (1991), the population in 1980 was 226 million and approximately 250 million in 1990. This reflects an increase of nearly 11 percent over the decade, or slightly more than 1 percent per year. Presently, 77 percent of the U.S. population lives in the nation’s 283 designated metropolitan areas, and the rate of growth in these areas is twice that of nonmetropolitan areas (Bryant, 1991).
Not surprisingly, EPA research indicates that noise levels in communities is directly related to the population density (EPA, 1974b).(1) Because the noise in urban areas generally exceeds that of suburban and rural areas, it is not unreasonable to assume that noise in the U.S. is increasing at least in proportion to the increase in urbanization and more rapidly than the growth of the general population. In addition, noise sources appear to be multiplying at a faster pace than the population.
B. Noise Sources
Figure 1, from EPA’s simplified version of the Levels Document, Protective Noise Levels, shows the range of sound levels for some common noise sources (EPA, 1978). Most leading noise sources will fall into the following categories: road traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, industry, noise in buildings, and consumer products.
1. Road traffic noise
In its Levels Document (1974), EPA estimated that road traffic noise was the leading source of community noise. EPA’s contractors found that to be true in 1981 (EPA, 1981), and there is little reason to believe otherwise today.
Truck transportation, as a convenient and economical means of moving raw materials and consumer goods from place to place, is growing at a faster pace than the general population. For example, a total (2) of 33.6 million trucks there registered in the U.S. in 1980. That number grew to 45.5 million in 1989, an increase of about 35 percent (American Trucking Assoc., 1991).
Noise from the motors and exhaust systems of large trucks provides the major portion of highway noise impact, and provides a potential noise hazard to the driver as well.(3) In addition, noise from the interaction of tires with the roadway is generated by trucks, buses, and private autos.
In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust systems of autos, smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall buildings, which produce a “canyon” in which traffic noise reverberates.
Typical Range of Common Sounds
2. Aircraft noise
Air traffic also appears to be increasing more rapidly than the U.S. population. In 1980, U.S. scheduled airlines flew approximately 255.2 billion passenger miles and 5.7 billion cargo (ton) miles. By 1990, these figures there 457.9 billion and 10.6 billion, respectively (Air Transport Assoc., 1991a). This represents an increase of 79 percent in passenger mileage, and 86 percent in air height mileage. Air cargo traffic has grown particularly rapidly in the last five years, and will probably continue that trend over the next decade.
By 1989, the quieter “Stage III” airplanes comprised nearly 40 percent of the domestic fleet (Air Transport Assoc, 1991b). By the year 2004, all of the noisier Stage II aircraft must be phased out (Airport Noise and Capacity Act, 1990). This requirement should promote a quieter environment around airports, but the growth of air transportation and the pressing need for airport expansion threatens to offset the benefits of the quieter aircraft.
Nowadays, the problem of low-flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its “nap-of-the-earth” warfare capabilities. In addition, the issue of aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas, and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years (Fidell, 1990; Cantoni, 1991; Weiner, 1990; Mouat, 1990).
3. Noise from railroads
The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operations in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can produce a high-frequency, high-level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet (EPA, 1974), which translates to levels as high as 138 or 140 dB at the railroad worker’s ear.
Unlike truck and air transportation, however, rail transportation does not appear to be increasing. According to the Association of American Railroads, the railroad industry loaded 22.1 million freight cars in 1988, down slightly from 22.6 million in 1980 (AAR, 1991).
4. Construction noise
The noise from construction of highways, city streets, and buildings is a major contributor to the urban scene. Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bull dozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers. The construction industry has done very well over recent years with a value-added GNP of $97.9 billion in 1977, increasing to $247.7 billion in 1989 (Dept. of Commerce, 1991), an increase of about 153 percent. The number of workers employed in construction grew from 4.3 million in 1980 to about 5.2 million in 1990, an increase of nearly 21 percent (BLS, 1991a).
5. Noise in industry
Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors mounted on the outside of buildings. Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise-induced hearing loss is unfortunately common.
The size of the U.S. manufacturing industry has not grown significantly over the last decade. Although the industrial. GNP increased from $673.9 billion in 1980 to $969.6 billion in 1990 (in terms of constant dollars) (BLS, 1991b), the workforce has declined from slightly more than 20 million to about 19 million during that period (BLS, 1991c). Consequently, industrially-generated community noise is probably no greater than it was in 1980.
From the worker’s perspective the industrial noise problem is still very serious. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has cut back on the enforcement of occupational noise standards and has allowed the substitution of hearing protection devices in lieu of engineering controls in many cases (OSHA, 1986). However, it is difficult to know whether noise levels in industry are increasing or decreasing because no comprehensive survey has been performed since the 1976 survey performed by Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. (BBN, 1976).
6. Noise in buildings
Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the sound of amplified music, voices, footfalls, and noisy activities from neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or insufficiently glazed.
Wetherill (1987) reports that although the lack of soundproofing is the most frequent environmental complaint of apartment dwellers, the knowledge to solve these problems is not being applied. In fact, the quality of construction is steadily declining, and the noise problems are getting worse (Wetherill, 1991).
7. Noise from consumer products
Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances, have been and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not very large. Added to this list would be yard maintenance equipment, such as lawn mowers and snow blowers, which can, at least, cause disharmony with one’s neighbors, and pother shop tools, which can be hazardous to hearing if used for sufficient periods of time.
One example of a fairly new product is the gasoline-pothered leaf blower, with average A-weighted sound levels at the operator’s position of 103.6 dB, and maximum levels of 110-l12 dB (Clark, 1991). In an extensive review of nonoccupational noise exposures, Davis et al. (1985) report that the manufacturers of household devices have been reluctant to release sound level information. Consequently, it could be difficult to assess the magnitude of the problem and the extent to which noise levels are increasing or decreasing.
Residents of suburban and rural areas are sometimes disturbed by recreational noise sources, such as off-road vehicles, high-pothered motor boats, and snowmobiles. Some of these sources, such as snowmobiles, are not as noisy as they there more than a decade ago, due to attention to the problem by the manufacturers and their trade associations. Others are no less noisy, and possibly more so because noise seems to be generic to the sport. Example would be motorcycle and car racing, and events like “tractor pulls.”
In fact, the allure of noisy recreational activities seems to be considerably greater now than it was a decade or so ago. The technology of sound reproduction has advancer to the point where loudspeakers can faithfully reproduce music and other sounds at levels well above 120 dB. Sporting events use giant digital “applause meters” to measure and display enthusiasm for the more popular team. The extreme in car stereo technology is now the “boom car”, with sound levels exceeding 140 dB.(4) Activities like aerobic exercising and ice skating, as well as disco dancing, are accompanied by amplified music played at high sound levels. After summarizing the results of 16 studies of discotheques and rock concerts Clark (1991) reported the geometric mean of the measured sound levels as 103.4 dB. The trend in noise levels for these kinds of activities is definitely upward.
One of the most serious sources of recreational noise is sport shooting, where peak sound pressure levels at the ear can range from about 144 dB up to more than 170 dB (5) (Odess, 1972). In his analysis of this literature, Clark (1991) cites estimates of the number of people responding positively to questions about hunting or target shooting. These estimates range from 14 percent of the general population in Scandinavia and the U.K. (Axelsson et al., 1981; Davis et al., 1985) to nearly 50 percent in the Canadian workforce (Chung et al., 1981), which Clark found to be consistent with estimates from U.S. industry. In a population of rural schoolchildren, 45 out of 47 boys and 2 out of 21 girls reported having used guns (Kramer and Wood, 1982).
A subcategory of consumer product noise that deserves mention is noisy toys. A few toys, such as firecrackers, snappers, and cap pistols have been part of the adventurous child’s experience for generations. The general assumption is that these toys do not pose a hazard when used occasionally and located at a sufficient distance from the ear (6). Nowadays, there is a large variety of noisy toys, thanks to the availability of improved technology. Many of them mimic adult noisemakers, such as amplified toy guitars, child-shed vacuum cleaners, and miniature pother saws. Some of these toys generate quite high levels of sound. For example, a baby’s squeeze toy (Fay, 1991) and the battery operated siren of a toy police car have both been measured at 110 dB (7).
In a recent report on noisy toys, Leroux and Laroche (1991) cite studies showing A-weighted noise levels for a toy motor at 107 dB and a child’s rattle at 99-100 dB (LNE, 1973). Current Canadian legislation limits the sound output of toys to “one hundred decibels measured at the distance that the product ordinarily would be from the ear of the child using it…” (Act, 1969), but Leroux and Laroche propose that this limit be lowered to an A-weighted level of 75 dB.